The Services Sector Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

The Services Sector Marketing - Essay Example This will be important for the bank to win a larger client base by getting new clients and also maintaining its current clients. The HSBC bank is a major bank in the UK and has more assets than the rest of the banks. This aspect makes it less risky as compared to the other banks and it is able to pay for all the costs it incurs in the day to day running of the business. The service sector is also very important to the economic wellbeing of a country as it contributes a considerable amount to the GNP. The essay will therefore seek to impart knowledge about the services sector marketing. It will also explain about the gaps model and its usefulness in improving the effectiveness of marketing. This model was developed by authors and was based on the quality of service. The model was made based on the perceptions of the consumers towards the quality of service. It was concluded that the service quality depended on four gaps. Some in-depth measurement scales were developed a year later. Th e perceived service quality can be said to be the difference between the expectations of the consumer and their perceptions. This will depend on the four gaps' sizes and directions with respect to the way the service quality is delivered as per the requirement of the company (Vovici Cooperation, 2009, pg 1). The gaps are grouped into an overall customer gap which is further classified into provider gaps. The provider gap has 4 gaps. Under the provider gap, gap 1 is lack of knowledge of the customers' expectation; Gap 2 is the lack of proper designs and standards; Gap 3 is the lack of delivery as per the service standards; and finally Gap 4 is the lack of matching the performance according to the promises the organization made. The provider gaps are known as internal gaps. The overall objective is to close these gaps. The model aims at connecting the internal and external customers (Vovici Cooperation, 2009, pg 1). Customer gap The factors leading to customer gap include gap 1 which is the lack of knowledge about the customers' expectations. This can be resolved through research which is aimed at finding out the needs of the customers. Various methods can be used to collect data from the people. These methods include questionnaires, observations and interviews. Through this, the organization is able to identify the various needs of the people and thus structure the services to meet these needs (Vovici Cooperation, 2009, pg 1). Research is important because the organization would otherwise have offered its services in the way they deemed fit which could have been contrary to the customers' requirements. Structuring services that are as per the customers' requirement of the customers will attract more customers and this will be to the overall benefit of the organization. In addition to this, the customers are happy to contribute or give their opinion to the way certain services should be and therefore identify with the organization. Another factor that leads to c ustomer gap is gap 2 which is the failure to select the right designs and standards for a service. Wrong designs and standards lead to the development of services which are of poor quality and do not meet the customer's needs. The customer is the center of focus and if this customer is not happy with the services he or she is being offered this is not good for the business.  

Segregation in Labor Markets, Neighborhood, Education, and Criminal Essay

Segregation in Labor Markets, Neighborhood, Education, and Criminal Justice - Essay Example With the slightest earthquakes, cracks mark the surface, and even the toughest man or sturdiest structure feels its effects and aftershock so as the blow of recession is faced by both white collared and blue collared workers. From late 2007 to early 2009, a dramatic decline in job vacancies and pairing market deterioration caused rising number in unemployment and permanent layoffs as this is by far the worst recession in American history in equivalence to the coined name Great Recession where, as reported, resulted to 10.6 million jobs deficit in just two years. And even with the declared end of the Great Recession in early 2009, the height of unemployment rates continues to shoot upward as the government strives to face the colossal job creation challenge in order to get a resilient economic recovery (Peck, 2010). Three years has passed and the government is still running the same marathon with the victory far from sight. As explained by Peck (2010), the Great Recession may be techn ically over but going back to the normal economic state is still afar. He used the words â€Å"New Jobless Era† to define this time when job opportunities and offerings sink to the bottom. As the government and its policy makers cogitate for ways to solve this, there is one query at the mind of the population, how does this novel system affect the lives and behavior of the people? Can everyone easily cope or will they be impelled to do things unthinkable in order to survive? Both media and labor unions had their eyes pinned on the concurrent lay-offs the following years yet all that was given were only sympathy and not any solution to the problem. The real problem is not absence of work for work has always been available, but it is the dearth of a real job and the career path together with its health benefits and chances for promotion that kills the middle class Americans that used to have a comfortable living. Aronowitz and DeFazio (2010) elucidated that what is offered now are contractual works that offers employment and income only for a specified period of time lacking the stability that it used to offer. They further discussed that the reasons behind this phenomenon are the outsourcing of production to other countries and cybernetics. For a much cheaper labor cost, computer companies such as Apple, Dell, Hewlett-Packard, and even some other electrical and automotive companies ought to send production processing off-shore to countries that offer much cheaper salary rates and higher number of workers. This scheme maximizes the company’s production budget while still producing high quality materials for the market. On the other hand, cybernetics and automation had been part of everyone’s daily living including in some factories where robotics replaced the then job of one human highly skilled for that certain task. Automation is a path worth investing by the capitalists for this requires no health benefits or retirement plans and offers p recise production at much faster rate. An example is the bankruptcy of Solyndra and New United Motor Manufacturing Inc. (NUMMI), which both used to be the powerhouse manufacturers of solar products and automotives respectively. Both were struck and defeated by their off shore competitions as the jobs were brought to

The modern computer system specification

The modern computer system specification Im one of the Managers of the Royal Star Company, also a programmer. When I visited to the Carmel Library, I found how to benefits the computers. So, I wanna report some information. First, we shouldnt need to use the systems of the old computers because of the following reasons. We cant install nowadays software because the systems of old computers will distinguish nowadays computers. If the old computer doesnt have network card, we cant transfer the files or folders to the other computers. Nowadays software need graphic to install, I think that the old computers doesnt have required graphic. As they are old computers, there are many problems to install nowadays softwares such as the memory required, hard-disk required and so on. Especially previous windows such as Windows NT, Windows 98, Windows ME and others. Above the reasons, we should use the modernized computers. I think that the minimum required of the hard-disk is 80GB. To install the windows, the minimum required of the memory is 128MB. And then windows OS (operating system) is important too. The minimum microprocessor rate is 1.0GHz (Giga Hertz).Ill report some modernize specifications to you. They are: Windows XP or later Open Office 3.1 GIMP or Irfan view A free Antivirus like AVG Antivirus or Avast Mozilla Firefox 3.5, Google Chrome 2.0 and Internet Explorer 8.0 Mozilla Thunderbird 2.0 Wireless Broadband gateway for internet connectivity Installation of Printers, optical Media and Scanner. First, we should install windows XP or windows Vista and latest version (Ultimate version) windows 7. These windows have enough memory, graphic and hard-disk. As the modernized version, they can install the latest software. So, we should need to use these versions. The microprocessors of these versions are very good. They can do everything fast. And we should install a free Antivirus like AVG Antivirus to protect our data from the virus attacking. As a good library, we always connect with the foreign customers. So, internet is necessary need. Wanna the internet connectivity good, we should use wireless connection such as Wi-Fi or Wi-Max. I wanna suggest about the internet. I dont wanna use the Dial up connection because this connection needs to renew again. We should install the Mozilla Firefox 3.5, Google Chrome 2.0 and Internet Explorer 8.0.And then; we need to install the printers, optical media and scanner. When we use the printers, we shouldnt use dot-matrix to have good quality. We shouldnt to use the floppy disk because the floppy disk will store small amount of data. So, we need to use memory stick or external hard -disk. Task (2) New systems and peripherals available are: System Board MB725 Intel ® DP55WG Media Series Desktop Boards price = $ 195.00 MB740 Intel ® DG43NB Classic Series Desktop Boards price = $ 151.00 Processor and Memory Architecture As example: -Processor Intel Core i7-870 (2.93 GHz, 8MB)s price = $794.00 Intel Core 2 Duo E8600 (3.33 GHz, 6MB)s price = $ 408.00 Intel Core 2 Quad Q9550 (2.83 GHz, 12MB)price= $ 393.00 -Memory 2GB DDR3-1333 Memorys price = $ 87.00 512mb DDR2-800 Memorys price = $ 22.00 Disk Drive systems 2.5 Serial ATA (SATA) Hard Disk Drive 320GB 7200RPMs price = $ 120.00 E-Disk Altima E2A3 Serial ATA (SATA) solid state flash drives price = $143.00 Peripherals (USB, Fire wire, Bluetooth and Wi-Fi access) -USB (Universal Serial Bus), they are very popular in these years. Every computer includes USB PORT. -Fire Wire is a capable of using the high-speed isochronous transfer mode to support data-transfer rates up to 400Mbps. -Bluetooth example are: Worlds Slimmest Lightest Bluetooth USB Dongle for Wireless connectivity 100 Meters, with 2 years warranty 2.4 GHz of wireless communication Usage. Price is $489.00 (2 years warranty) Bluetooth 100 Meters range Transfer data like Software, Images, Ringtones; Games to you Bluetooth enabled Mobile Phone/PDA. Transfer Voice data Connect to your Phone/PDAs Modem. Price is $499.00 GNET Presents to you USB Hub Bluetooth Dongle Mega Combo Deal. Now taste this deal before it is gone Kit Contents 1 Bluetooth Dongle worth Rs.600 One Four Port Hub worth Prince $499.00 Printers Canon Pixma MP 560 printers price = $89 to $157 HP LaserJet 1320 printers price = $89 to $499 HP Photosmart Premium Touch Smart Web printers price = $279 to $464 Network Hardware and cabling/ Wireless LAN Network Hardware and cabling -Network hardware and cabling is not too hard. -First, we need to clip the cables. -Then, plug them into a system or a computer. Wireless LAN -Wireless LAN is useful in nowadays. -Mostly, it is used in Internet cafes and Game Shops. -LAN (Local Area Network) is a form of networks. -Installing the LAN is like a network. -I will show you the installation of network in Task (4) Task (3) Problems from using old computers.. -At first, the systems will distinguish nowadays computers. So, we cant use nowadays software. -Second, if the old computer doesnt network card, we cant transfer the file or folder to other computers by using network. -Third, the memory and graphic will need to more install. As they are old modernized computers, there are many problems to install nowadays software such as the memory required, hard-disk required and so on. So, we should need to use Modernized Computers because of the above reasons. Software List -windows XP/Vista/7 -Open office 3.1 -GIMP or Irfan view -A free Antivirus like AVG antivirus or Avast -Mozilla Firefox 3.5, Google Chrome 2.0 and Internet Explorer 8.0 -Mozilla Thunderbird 2.0 -Wireless Broadband gateway for internet connectivity -Installation of Printers, Optical Media and Scanner. Hardware List Some hardware lists are as follows: -Intel(R) Core 2 Duo CPU T5750 2.0GHz Pentium 4 -DDR2 4GB -HP Jornada 420/430 Hitachi SH3 (SH3) Palm-size PC 1.2 (SH3) -Microsoft Windows PC (International Unicode) Pentium or compatible (x86) Windows XP -Microsoft Windows PC Intel Pentium or compatible (x86) Windows Vista or Windows XP -Toshiba Genio e550 Intel StrongARM SA-1110 (ARM) Pocket PC (ARM) -HP Jornada 820 Intel Strong ARM SA-1110 190MHz (ARM) HPC Pro (ARM) -Compaq Aero 2150/2180 NEC VR4121 (MIPS) Palm-size PC 1.2 (MIPS) -Apple Macintosh (x86 based) x86 (x86) Apple Macintosh (with Crossover) -Asus AH100 Intel StrongArm SA1100 (ARM) HPC 2000 -Hitachi ePlate HPW-600ET Hitachi SH4 (SH3) HPC Pro (SH3) Project Plans are as follows: -Removing the old system -Install Motherboard -Install CPU -Install RAM -Install Network Card Removing the old system -At first, remove the external I/O Systems. -And then, remove the System Units Cover and remove the Adapter Cards. -Second, removing the cables from the System Board and System Board. -Finally, remove the Power Supply. -Removing the Power Supply Disconnect the exterior power connections from the system unit a system Disconnect the interior power connections Remove the power-supply unit from the system Install Motherboard Motherboard is the physical arrangement in a computer that contains the computers basic circuitry and components. On the typical motherboard, the circuitry is imprinted or affixed to the surface of a firm planar surface and usually manufactured in a single step. In both the AT and ATX designs, the computer components included in the motherboard are: * The microprocessor * (Optionally) coprocessors * Memory * Basic input/output system (BIOS) * Expansion slot * Interconnecting circuitry -Motherboard is the basic component of the PC system. -Motherboard is the main circuit board of a computer. A motherboard, known as the central or primary circuit board makes up a complex electronic system such as a computer. -The motherboard contains the connectors for attaching additional boards. -The physical arrangement in a computer that contains the computers basic circuitry and components. Install the System Board (Motherboard) Verify the whole pattern alignment for the new system board and insert it into the system unit chassis. Install the grounding screws that hold the system board to the brass standoffs in the chassis floor. Reconnect all the cables to the system board (such as Power Connections Front-Panel Connections and Disk-Drive Connections.) Install the option adapter cards in the appropriate expansion-slot connectors (remove slot covers from the back panel of the chassis to accommodate any new cards.) Replace the system units outer cover or side panels. Reconnect all external I/O systems. Start up the system and reconfigure any CMOS Settings required to return the system to its original performance settings. And Then Installing Microprocessors Installing the Memory Modules Installing Support ICs Central Processing Unit (CPU) -The Main Component of a personal computer. -It contains the major structures that make up a computer system. -It performs mathematical and logical computations at incredible speeds. -It is also the brain of the computer. -And install the CPU. Memory -There are (2) types of memories. They are: RAM Random Access Memory ROM Read-only Memory RAM Random Access Memory -It is quick enough to operate directly with the microprocessor. -It can be read from and written to as often as desired. -It is a volatile type of memory. -Its Contents disappear when power is removed from the memory. ROM Read-only Memory -It contains the computers permanent startup programs. -It is non-volatile type of memory. -Its contents remain with or without power being applied. Cache Memory -It is one type of memories. -It performs to use the Data quickly. -An area of special high-speed RAM reserved for improving system performance by holding information that the microprocessor is likely to use. Then, -Install the Power Supply and Install the Video/Monitor Systems. -Install Storage Devices such as Hard-Disk Drive Installation, CD-ROM/DVD Devices Installation and so on -Install Adapter Card-Basic Peripherals (E.g. Installation of the Sound Cards.) -Install Wireless LAN components As a result, -We should need to use modernized computers for the nowadays software. -We should know what is a Motherboard? We should know the Software lists and Hardware Lists. -We should know how to remove or install system Boards steps by steps. Task (4) Installing the windows -Install the windows steps by steps with Installer CD. -As an example, Ill show the installation of the windows XP. Installation of the windows applications Install the Open Office 3.1 -Install the Open Office 3.1 steps by steps. -Ill show with my download pictures. Install A Free Antivirus (AVG) Installation of a Free Antivirus (AVG) is as follow: Installing The Mozilla Firefox 3.5 Mozilla Firefox 3.5 need to install following steps Installing Internet Explorer 8.0 Installing Internet Explorer 8.0 with the following steps. Installing the Mozilla Thunderbird 2.0 Ill show Mozilla Thunderbird 2.0 with my print screen photos. Network Installation -Network installation starts with clipping the network cables. -Then, the clipped cables plugged to the main computer. -For internet, we need to connect with internet modem or wireless router. -For work, we need to distribute with work stations (network sharing computers). -And then, we should install the scanner and network printer. Installation of the network printers A network printer installation allows multiple users and computer to share a single printer, and then having numerous personal printers throughout the home or office. When we install a network printer, make sure it is located in a centralized place so that all users can access it conveniently. Then install the software on each machine. -We may find that newer versions of Windows may already have the necessary drivers installed. Installation of a printer is following steps. Task (5) Common Printer Problems A printer is a peripheral which produces a hard copy (permanent readable text and/or graphics) of documents stored in electronic form. -A printer should have some paper to copy for ready. -Printer needs a officer or a worker to do its processings. -As an electronic device, a printer can use when the electric is powered up. 5 Essentials utilities Using the Device Manager -The Device Manager utility is basically an easy-to-use interface for the Windows 9x/Me and Windows 2000/XP. -We can use the Device Manager utility to manually isolate hardware and configuration conflicts. -In this utility, the presence of plus (+) and minus (-) signs in the nodes of the devices indicates expandable and collapsible information branches at those nodes. -An exclamation point (!) inside a yellow circle whenever a device is experiencing a direct hardware conflict with another device in this utility. -Similarly, a red X appears beside a devices icon when the device has been disabled due to a user-selection conflict. System Editors -The Windows operating systems contain three important editors:System Editor (SysEdit), the Registry Editor (RegEdit and RegEtd32), and the Policy Editor (PolEdit).Windows 2000 also includes a very powerful Group Policy Editor (GPE). -Later versions of MS-DOS contained a small text editor program (EDIT.COM) that enabled users to easily modify text files. -We can start this utility by typing the EDIT command along with the filename at the command prompt. -The editor is particularly useful in modifying the CONFIG.SYS and AUTOEXEC.BAT files. -The MS-DOS Editor is an unformatted text file editor. -To start the SysEdit function, select the Run option form the Start menu. Windows Task Manager -This utility can be used to determine which applications in the system are running or stopped, as well as which resources are being used. -We can also determine what the general microprocessor and memory usage level are. -We can access the Windows 2000/XP Task Manager by pressing Ctrl+Alt+Del or Ctrl+Shift+Esc or we can aso access the Task manager from the pop-up context menu. Ctrl+Shift+Esc key sequence moves directly into Task Manager ,whereas the Ctrl+Alt+Del selection opens the Windows Security menu screen, which offer Task Manager as an option. -To use this utility, select the application from the Applications tab and click the End Task button. If prompted, click the End Task button again to confirm the selection. -The processes tab provides information that can be helpful in tracking down problems associated with slow system operation. -The performance tab provides a graphical summary of the systems CPU and memory usage. Disk Cleanup -Another disk-management tool available in Windows operating systems is the Disk Cleanup utility. -This utility can be used to remove certain types of normally disposable files and optional components from the system to clear additional disk space. -We can access the Disk Cleanup utility through the System Tools entry by selecting Start, Programs, and Accessories. -When it is activated, the Disk Cleanup utility calculates the amount of space that can be regained by emptying the Recycle Bin. -It also examines the space saved by removing downloaded files, temporary files and temporary Internet files. Backup -Backup utilities enable the user to quickly create extended copies of files, groups of files, or an entire disk drive. -The backup and Restore functions can be used to back up and retrieve one or more files to another disk because a backup of related files is typically much larger than a single floppy disk , backup programs normally allow information to be backed up to a series of disks; they also provide file-compression techniques to reduce the size of the files stored on the disks. -It is impossible to read or use the compressed backup files in this format. To be usable, the files must be decompressed (expanded) and restored to the DOS file format. -The Microsoft Backup and Restore disk-management utility is found in both Windows 9x/Me and Windows 2000/XP. -It is not automatically installed when Windows is set up. If the user decides to install this feature, the actual Backup file (Backup.exe) is placed in the C:Program_FilesAccessories directory. -Windows also creates a shortcut icon for the Backup utility in the C:WindowsStart MenuProgramsAccessoriesSystem Tools directory. Task (6) The Operating System Here is the fundamental of Operating System: -The Operating System also called OS is for creating the link between the material resources, the user and the applications (word processor, video, game, etc) -It does not need to send specific information to the peripheral device but it simply sends the information to the operating system. The Operating System also conveys it to the relevant peripheral via its driver. To Benefits the Operating System -To benefits the operating system, we should correctly the roles of the operating system. -Roles of the Operating System Management of the Processor Management of the RAM Management of Input/output Management of execution and application Management of authorizations Files management Information management Pros and cons of Wireless Internet connectivity Not all Windows XP computers with Wi-Fi wireless support are capable of automatic wireless configuration. To verify your Windows XP computer supports this feature, you must access its Wireless Network Connection properties. -It is more comfortable to use than other Internet Access like ADSL, MPT etc -The Lap-tops are easily to connect the Internet with wireless access. -Wireless is very necessary for each company or office. Common boot sequence Error codes, their interpretation and correction The system BIOS is what starts the computer running when you turn it on. -This will vary by the manufacturer of your hardware, BIOS, etc., and especially by what peripherals you have in the PC. The BIOS performs the power-on self test (POST). If there are any fatal errors, the boot process stops. POST beep codes can be found in this area of the Troubleshooting Expert. -The BIOS does more tests on the system, including the memory count-up test which you see on the screen. The BIOS will generally display a text error message on the screen if it encounters an error at this point; these error messages and their explanations can be found in this part of the Troubleshooting Expert.

The Sedition Act of 1798 :: history

The Sedition Act of 1798 For the first few years of Constitutional government, under the leadership of George Washington, there was a unity, commonly called Federalism that even James Madison (the future architect of the Republican Party) acknowledged in describing the Republican form of government-- à ¿ And according to the degree of pleasure and pride we feel in being republicans, ought to be our zeal in cherishing the spirit and supporting the character of Federalists.à ¿ Although legislators had serious differences of opinions, political unity was considered absolutely essential for the stability of the nation. Political parties or factions were considered evil as à ¿Complaints are everywhere heard from our most considerate and virtuous citizens, equally the friends of public and private faith, and of public and personal liberty, that our governments are too unstable, that the public good is disregarded in the conflicts of rival parties, and that measures are too often decided, not according to the rules of justice and the rights of the minor party, but by the superior force of an interested and overbearing majorityà ¿Ãƒ ¿ Public perception of factions were related to British excesses and thought to be à ¿the mortal diseases under which popular governments have everywhere perished.à ¿ James Madison wrote in Federalist Papers #10, à ¿By a faction, I understand a number of citizens, whether amounting to a majority or a minority of the whole, who are united and actuated by some common impulse of passion, or of interest, adversed to the rights of other citizens, or to the permanent and aggregate interests of the community.à ¿ He went on to explain that faction is part of human nature; à ¿that the CAUSES of faction cannot be removed, and that relief is only to be sought in the means of controlling its EFFECTS.à ¿ The significant point Madison was to make in this essay was that the Union was a safeguard against factions in that even if à ¿the influence of factious leaders may kindle a flame within their particular States, [they will be] unable to spread a general conflagration through the other States.à ¿ What caused men like Thomas Jefferson and James Madison to defy tradition and public perceptions against factions and build an opposition party? Did they finally agree with Edmund Burkesà ¿ famous aphorism: à ¿When bad men combine, the good must associate; else they will fall, one by one, an unpitied sacrifice in a contemptible struggle?à ¿ Did the answer lie in their opposition with the agenda of Alexander Hamilton and the The Sedition Act of 1798 :: history The Sedition Act of 1798 For the first few years of Constitutional government, under the leadership of George Washington, there was a unity, commonly called Federalism that even James Madison (the future architect of the Republican Party) acknowledged in describing the Republican form of government-- à ¿ And according to the degree of pleasure and pride we feel in being republicans, ought to be our zeal in cherishing the spirit and supporting the character of Federalists.à ¿ Although legislators had serious differences of opinions, political unity was considered absolutely essential for the stability of the nation. Political parties or factions were considered evil as à ¿Complaints are everywhere heard from our most considerate and virtuous citizens, equally the friends of public and private faith, and of public and personal liberty, that our governments are too unstable, that the public good is disregarded in the conflicts of rival parties, and that measures are too often decided, not according to the rules of justice and the rights of the minor party, but by the superior force of an interested and overbearing majorityà ¿Ãƒ ¿ Public perception of factions were related to British excesses and thought to be à ¿the mortal diseases under which popular governments have everywhere perished.à ¿ James Madison wrote in Federalist Papers #10, à ¿By a faction, I understand a number of citizens, whether amounting to a majority or a minority of the whole, who are united and actuated by some common impulse of passion, or of interest, adversed to the rights of other citizens, or to the permanent and aggregate interests of the community.à ¿ He went on to explain that faction is part of human nature; à ¿that the CAUSES of faction cannot be removed, and that relief is only to be sought in the means of controlling its EFFECTS.à ¿ The significant point Madison was to make in this essay was that the Union was a safeguard against factions in that even if à ¿the influence of factious leaders may kindle a flame within their particular States, [they will be] unable to spread a general conflagration through the other States.à ¿ What caused men like Thomas Jefferson and James Madison to defy tradition and public perceptions against factions and build an opposition party? Did they finally agree with Edmund Burkesà ¿ famous aphorism: à ¿When bad men combine, the good must associate; else they will fall, one by one, an unpitied sacrifice in a contemptible struggle?à ¿ Did the answer lie in their opposition with the agenda of Alexander Hamilton and the

United Nations Environment Programme Environmental Sciences Essay

The United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) matching United Nations environmental programme, back uping developing states in implement environmentally strongHYPERLINK â€Å" hypertext transfer protocol: //en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_peacebuilding † policies and patterns. It was start as a consequence of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in June 1972 and has its central offices in Nairobi, Kenya. UNEP has six regional offices and different state offices. UNEP is represent transversally the Earth by six regional offices: in Africa Nairobi, Kenya. Asia and the Pacific in Bangkok, Thailand. Europe in Geneva, Switzerland. Latin America and the Caribbean in Mexico City, Mexico. North America in Washington DC, USA, and West Asia in Manama, Bahrain. UNEP ‘s planetary and transverse scrotal position is throw back image in its organisational construction, its behavior and its human resources. UNEP staff semen from about 100 states. About tierce of UNEP ‘s about 1,000 staff reside and work in Nairobi ; the most are located around the universe in more than 28 metropoliss in 25 states. UNEP ‘s planetary foundation is in Nairobi, Kenya. It is peculiar of merely two UN programme headquartered in the underdeveloped universe. Bing base in Africa give UNEP a first-hand considerate of the environmental job expression developing states. UNEP has a caput office in Paris, France, anyplace its Division of Technology, Industry and Economics ( DTIE ) is headquartered. UNEP and DTIE have subdivisions in Geneva, Switzerland, and Osaka in Japan. UNEP ‘s chief mission is provide leading and promote partnership in helpful for the environment by animating, inform, and enable states and peoples to develop their quality of life without via media that of future coevalss. UNEP is the nominative authorization of the United Nations system in environmental impact at the planetary and regional degree. Its understanding is to organize the enlargement of environmental policy consensus by maintained the planetary environment under reappraisal and convey lifting issues to the consideration of authoritiess and the international community for action. The bid and aims of UNEP emanate from United Nations General Assembly declaration 2997 ( XXVII ) of 15 December 1972 and subsequent amendment adopted at UNCED in 1992, the Nairobi Declaration on the Role and Mandate of UNEP, adopted at the Nineteenth Session of the UNEP Governing Council, and the Malmo Ministerial Declaration of 31 May 2000. Its actions cover a big series of issues about the ambiance, Marine and tellurian ecosystems. It has play a of import portion in developing international environmental conventions, promote environmental scientific discipline and information and exemplifying the m those can work in concurrence with policy, working on the development and execution of policy with national authoritiess and regional establishment and working in concurrence with environmental Non-Governmental Organizations ( NGOs ) . UNEP has besides been lively in grant and processing environmentally related development undertakings. UNEP has aided in the development of guidelines and pacts on issues such as the international trade in potentially unsafe chemicals, Tran border air pollution, and taint of international waterways. The World Meteorological Organization and the UNEP founded the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) in 1988. UNEP is besides one of some Implementing Agencies for the Global Environment Facility Major maps are International agreements to better environmental protection, Periodic appraisals and scientifically sound prognosiss to keep declaration devising and international consensus on the chief environmental menaces and response to them, keep for more helpful national and international response to environmental menaces, including policy advice to authoritiess, many-sided organisations and others to beef up environmental protection and integrated environmental considerations into the sustainable development pattern, More successful coordination of environmental affair surrounded by the UN system, better consciousness and installation for environmental direction between authoritiess, the private sector and civil society, Better apprehension of the link between environment and human security, poorness obliteration, and forestalling and extenuating natural catastrophes. UNEP, s duties are Promoting international cooperation in the field of the environment and urge appropriate policies, Monitoring the significance of the planetary environment and assemblage and circulating environmental information, Catalyzing environmental consciousness and accomplishment to turn to major environmental menaces between authorities, the private sector and civil humanity, Facilitating the coordination of UN actions on affairs concerned with the environment, and guarantee, through aid, affair and engagement, that their behavior take environmental considerations into history, Developing regional programmes for environmental sustailiability. Helping, upon petition, environment ministries and other environmental governments, in peculiar in developing states and states with economic systems in passage, to explicate and implement environmental policies, Supplying country-level environmental capacity edifice and engineering support, functioning to develop international environmental jurisprudence, and supplying professional advice on the development and usage of environmental constructs and instruments. The understanding through standards-driven environmental policy in developed states over the past decennaries suggest that the authorization environmental criterions and engineerings acted as a draw on economic growing and costs have been far better than expected, while still rather low-cost given their high incomes. This realisation has induced developed states to look for more capable or at least less valuable agencies of achieve the same degree of environmental security during the usage of economic or market-based instruments. For developing states and the transitional economic systems of Eastern Europe and the old Soviet Union, the divorce of environmental policy from economic policy and from strivings to accomplish sustainable development is nonmeaningful and potentially black both economically and environmentally. Where criterions of life are intolerably low, where poorness is a major beginning and victim of environmental debasement, where natural resource direction is the engine of growing, where once designed economic systems struggle to reconstitute and retrieve, enforcing restraints on economic activity to protect the environment for its ain interest instead than as an input in sustainable development has really limited entreaty. Under these status, environmental policy can non be divorced from economic policy and development scheme. Furthermore, under conditions of speedy economic growing and huge structural alteration, mandated criterions and engineerings that permit no room for differential answe r and alteration to rapidly altering fortunes be together really valuable and hard to implement. Command-and-controls require the generous usage of assets such as capital, authorities income, direction accomplishments, administrative and enforcement capablenesss, the really factors that are in scarce supply in developing and reforming economic systems. The challenge for developing states and transitional economic systems is to categorise and follow instrument that articulation together environmental and economic policy and that are penurious in their usage of scarce development and direction resources instruments that allow differential response by economic units and adjust flexibly to altering fortunes. The hunt for instruments of environmental direction in developing states and transitional economic systems is a hunt for instruments of sustainable development. Economic instruments meet most of these conditions and are unambiguously suited for the integrating of environmental and economic policy and can be designed to progress sustainable development.

Effect of Force Majeure or Act of God Essay

If upon the happening of a fortuitous event or an act of God, there concurs a corresponding fraud, negligence, delay or violation or contravention in any manner of the tenor of the obligation as provided for in Article 1170 of the Civil Code, which results in loss or damage, the obligor cannot escape liability. It has been held that when the negligence of a person concurs with an act of God in producing a loss, such person is not exempt from liability by showing that the immediate cause of the damage was the act of God. To be exempt from liability for loss because of an act of God, he must be free from any previous negligence or misconduct by which that loss or damage may have been occasioned. Fortuitous Event – an event which could not be foreseen, or which, though foreseen is inevitable. Essential Characteristics of a Fortuitous Event 1. Cause is independent on the will of the debtor;  2. Impossibility of foreseeing or impossibility of avoiding it to be foreseen even if foreseen; 3. Occurrence renders it impossible for debtor to fulfill his obligation in a normal manner; and 4. Debtor is free from any participation in the aggravation of the injury to the creditor. General Rule: No liability in case of fortuitous event Exceptions: 1. By contrary stipulation in the contract;  2. Declared by law e.g. Art 552(2), 1268, 1942, 2147, 2148, 2159 of the New Civil Code; 3. Nature of the obligation requires assumption of risk when expressly declared by law; 4. When the obligor is in default or has promised to deliver the same thing to 2 or more persons who do not have the same interests (Art. 1165 (3)) Art. 1174. Except in cases expressly specified by the law, or when it is otherwise declared by stipulation, or when the nature of the obligation requires the assumption of risk, no person shall be responsible for those events which could not be foreseen, or which, though foreseen, were inevitable. If the performance of this Agreement, or any obligations hereunder is prevented, restricted, or interfered with by reason of: fire, flood, earthquake, explosion or other casualty or accident or act of God; strikes or labor disputes; war or other violence; any law,  order proclamation, regulation, ordinance, demand or requirement of any governmental authority; or any other act or condition whatsoever beyond the reasonable control of the affected party, the party so affected, upon giving prompt notice to the other party, shall be excused from such performance to the extent of such prevention, restriction or interference; provided, however, that the party so affected shall take all reasonable steps to avoid or remove such cause of non performance and shall resume performance hereunder with dispatch whenever such causes are removed.

Religion Among Early American Immigrants essays

Religion Among Early American Immigrants essays For the first American immigrants, religion wasnt just an attribute, it was a way of life. It defined what kind of lives they lead and how they were viewed by others in their new community. In some cases, religion determined where people could live. It became a regular financial expense similar to paying taxes. Often, ones rights as an American citizen hinged on which faith he proclaimed, as did their political views. In essence, the immigrant experience was dramatically affected by religious attitudes in the country at the time of their coming. In the early years of Virginian immigration, the vast majority of the settlers held Protestant beliefs, though the varieties differed. After becoming a royal colony, Virginia became an example for England of ideal Anglican conformity. Sermons were administered every Sunday, communion given three times a year, responsibility was adopted to shape the behavior of the children, and to influence the people to lead what they considered to be pure lives. Church was not just a pastime, it was an expected ritual. Any parishioners absent from church on Sundays or holidays were forced to pay a shilling in addition to the tithes they owed already. People such as Sir William Berkeley focused their wills on their spiritual wealth more than their material. In a world that was haunted by death, religion became urgently important to the Virginiansmore urgent then their worldly business. Prejudice against certain religions incited a major change in the lives of their followers. In 17th century Massachusetts, Puritans and their descendants had tight control over the area. A control they would lose in 1642 when Governor William Berkeley created new laws that demanded all nonconformists...to depart the colony with all conveniency. Many nonconformist ministers served Puritan communities, which suddenly found themselves scattered and banishe...

Free Essays on Australian Consumer Protection Legislation

or actions will have legal consequences if not carried out. To form a contract between two parties it must be shown that there is an intention from each to become legally bound, there must be a ‘meeting of minds’ between the ‘parties’, as well as consideration. There are five general rules as to an offer the first being that the offer must be communicated by the offeror to the offeree, the second being the offeror may restrict his or her offer to one person or may make his or her offer to a limited group of persons or to the world at large, the third rule states that all terms of an offer must be communicated to ‘party’ accepting the offer. The fourth rule states that the offeree may specify conditions to be followed, and the fifth states that an offer may be revoked at any time prior to acceptance. Similarly to an offer there are four rules which apply to the acceptance of a contract. The first rule reads that the acceptance of an offer must relate to the offer in it’s entirety and cannot vary or in any way qualify that offer; the second rule is that acceptance of an offer must be made in strict conformity with the method of communication nominated by the offerer, however where no method of accept... Free Essays on Australian Consumer Protection Legislation Free Essays on Australian Consumer Protection Legislation â€Å"Governments have passed consumer protection legislation because they believe that the common law of contracts cannot adequately protect the consumer in today’s complex market place.† Both the Commonwealth and Queensland State governments have legislated to provide greater protection to consumers in contractual situations that would otherwise not be provided by common law. Examples of the government introducing legislation as a means of providing greater protection to consumers than common law are: The Trade and Practices Act 1974(Cth); and The Sale of Goods Act 1895(Qld). Contract law was introduced as a means of providing assurance as to the validity of an agreement, whereby both parties intend that their words or actions will have legal consequences if not carried out. To form a contract between two parties it must be shown that there is an intention from each to become legally bound, there must be a ‘meeting of minds’ between the ‘parties’, as well as consideration. There are five general rules as to an offer the first being that the offer must be communicated by the offeror to the offeree, the second being the offeror may restrict his or her offer to one person or may make his or her offer to a limited group of persons or to the world at large, the third rule states that all terms of an offer must be communicated to ‘party’ accepting the offer. The fourth rule states that the offeree may specify conditions to be followed, and the fifth states that an offer may be revoked at any time prior to acceptance. Similarly to an offer there are four rules which apply to the acceptance of a contract. The first rule reads that the acceptance of an offer must relate to the offer in it’s entirety and cannot vary or in any way qualify that offer; the second rule is that acceptance of an offer must be made in strict conformity with the method of communication nominated by the offerer, however where no method of accept...

Assess the View That Traditional Class Identities Are No Longer Important

These have the view that class no longer really matters in modern Britain and that now people no longer identify themselves according to their class background. Clarke and Saunders (1991) would agree with the view of postmodernists. They suggest that classes have become fragmented into many different groups and now they have been replaced with other influences such as gender and lifestyles. Although they is some evidence which suggests these ideas are exaggerated. Marshall’s survey into how people view themselves showed people still see social class as a source of identity. The traditional working class was a group of people that was developed after the industrialisation when they were need for large amounts of manual workers. This group formed a strong sense on culture and identity. These were strong moral values, having men as the breadwinner and women as housewives and believing getting a job is more important than having an education. The traditional working class also saw the labour party as the party for the working class as it represented their interests, as pointed out in item B. Although now many people in the working class vote for different parties as they don’t all agree on what is important now in society, supporting the idea that traditional class identities are no longer important. Now also the manufacturing business as changed a lot, this means now they aren’t the same jobs available as they would have been before as they have been replaced with things such as machines that can do a faster and cheaper job. Therefore the working class has had to change the sort of jobs they do over time which may be a reason for the change in characteristics, and therefore making the traditional class identities now no longer important. Diamond and Giddens agree with this as they argue that the working class is no longer important because of the change in the economy that as lead to the decline of manual labour jobs, and that the working class isn’t now the only class which experiences economic and social eprivation. The new working class is now seen to have little loyalty to others within the same class, more emphasis on customer goods, high levels of home ownership, and women likely to be employed. There is also now a larger section of the working class, this may be down to some working class jobs now becoming more skilful therefore getting higher pay, which others become less skilful and get lower pay, meaning people in the same class may identify themselves every differently. However there are sociologists that believe traditional class identities are still very important, for example Marxists. They believe social class is still hugely influential in shaping our identities. They also believe social class is identified by your income, and that leisure wouldn’t define your identity as you would need the disposable income to afford it. The British Attitudes Survey supported this idea, because in 2007 it found still 94% of people still identified themselves with a social class, whereas only 6% didn’t. Overall the importance of traditional class identities are seen every differently by different people. Views which agree and disagree to the importance of traditional class identities still being important have both positives and negatives so it’s hard to just believe one view point is the truth and the other doesn’t matter. Therefore I believe both viewpoints have sufficient evidence and that traditional class identities are still important to an extent, however now there is also other factors that can make up our identity other than just our social class.

The Current Status of Literacy in Mathematics Research Paper

The Current Status of Literacy in Mathematics - Research Paper Example Despite the application of the important factor in education, knowledge remains to be a fundamental part as it provides the foundation for people to practice their own calling or profession. It means that a significant portion of profession gives importance to literacy. People can only function to the extent of what they know. It also shows that research on education is very important. Research is done to improve the literacy and education globally. It has also recognized the recent developments in technology that allows the information to be disseminated in a wider scope using the internet. It has bloomed the concept of interconnectedness which has significantly improved the business, work and overall living of people worldwide. In short, it can also be used to improve the education system. The same interconnectedness has also been known across fields of specializations and body of knowledge. Science can be used in music which means systematic ways of doing things in making songs ma y entail the use of both science and music. Some may even use music in learning the subject matter like in language. Singing can be used to easily remember the important concepts like a song on nouns for a language class.Literacy has been connected with learning and education although its roots can be traced back to the concept of language. In the present, it has been synonymous with the level of understanding in certain subject areas like science, math and much more.  Since literacy has been connected to language, it can be applied to the content of mathematics. For example, a branch of mathematics called geometry may need the language and literacy to improve its standards. Its content may deal with the geometrical terms. Having the shapes and concepts in geometry may be hard to deal with for some students. To improve it, the use of songs may be used to understand the terms and connect them with their respective elements. Some literacy games may also be done to connect the right terms to the right elements. Another goal would be the analysis of the characteristics of shapes in two dimensions and three dimensions which can be done through the use of technology-based applications or software. The same goes with the content of the shapes when they are needed to be compared like understanding how two shape are the same or different. They can also be classified with the aid of the software like computer games and shape-modeling software (Brozo 160). It shows how important to improve the content through literacy like words and terms and even use the technology for learning. Content plays the key role in learning certain subject matter so it is very important to focus on it. It contributes greatly in comprehension of the learners about particular subject matter (Conley 5). Learning is really affected by the quality of the content and how it is delivered. It is really applicable to mathematics. For instance,

Understanding project contractors and contracting businesses Essay

Understanding project contractors and contracting businesses - Essay Example Understanding project contractors and contracting businesses Analysis of such parameters will help us with an understanding about how the companies have performed over the seven years and whether they were able to add value to the company. One of the companies chosen above has a high total asset usage and the other one has a low total asset usage. The underlying rationale behind choosing this ratio as the primary differentiating parameter between these two companies is because this ratio is very useful in determining the financial performance of the company. It gives us an indication of the pricing strategy that the companies have adopted. Moreover, the firms have been chosen as a case of high and low values of a ratio that appears in the Du Pont system, which will make it easy for us to explore relationships and trade-offs between that and other ratios. The following sections will involve the analysis of key financial ratios that the firms have been able to achieve over the seven years. 2. Midas Retail Limited Midas construction is the larges t company that belongs to the Midas group of companies. The primary line of work that the company is engaged in is to serve the design and construction needs of all its customers from a network of local offices. The company works in close partnership with its local partners who specialise in supply chain, thereby utilizing their local expertise and knowledge. Each of the regional business under the Midas group offers highly personalised services which are designed to suit the needs and requirements of every individual customer and project (Midas, 2013) 3. Rock Fall Company Limited This company specilises in drilling, explosives engineering and blasting, particularly in the marine environment. The company has been able to complete more than 200 contracts in about 35 countries. The line of work that the company is engaged in ranges from the removal of small boulder outcrops to massive port development schemes. The activities are generally related to harbor deepening, clearance of navi gation channels and quay well construction. Another activity that can be include in the company's list of underwater expertise is foreshore trenching (Rock Fall, 2013). 4. Ratio Analysis Ratio analysis is an attempt to reduce accounting information in to more usable understandable figures and look at relationships between the figures. It can be used to ‘help interpret trends in performance year on year and by benchmarking to industry averages or to the performance of individual competitors or against a pre-determined target’ (Collier, 2009, p.104). Firstly, we can compare ratios for two or more accounting periods and look at the change. However, external factors may have influenced activity levels. For example, public awareness of environmental issues may have necessitated a change in manufacturing process leading to increased costs. Secondly, we can compare this to another company in the same industry. However, in some case, businesses may not be truly comparable with regard to size and type. For example, bases on which accounting information is prepared, may be different (inventory valuations and depreciation). Thirdly, we can compare this to an industry average, these can be compiled using data bases such as â€Å"Data Stream†. However, these have to be comparable as reflect as closely as possible the various characteristics of the company (McLane & Atrill, 2009, p.224-225). 4.1 Efficiency Ratios 4.1.1 Asset turnover This ratio measures the amount of sales that a company generates for every dollar’

Practise report PARAPHRASING Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Practise report PARAPHRASING - Assignment Example Whether a subject in the material is a fact or a personal opinion is also important. Facts supported by other evidences are given more weight compared to personal opinions. The blog Anthropologists in Cross Cultural Management does not comply with some of the criteria provided in the CRAP method. This method requires that a source be current and reliable and that its authority be well defined. Even though the material is current having been written in February 2009, it is the opinion of and individual and has not been supported by any form of reference. The material is also quite short and does not cover the entire topic managing multicultural environment. In the CRAP criteria, it is preferred that the publisher of a material have a knowledge of the subject to be addressed and if possible give a comprehensive introduction to the contents of the work. Emerald publishers draw journals from several university libraries all over the world and such introduction is not possible. Moreover, the journal may be lacking citations. Managing and harnessing the powers of Cross-Cultural differences has much of what is required. A list of materials read given at the end of the work indicates that it is not purely an individual’s opinion and that similar observation and argument can be obtained from other materials as well. It is also current having been modified on August 03, 2009 at 7:02:55 PM. This source also has links to other and referring to these sources is quite convenient. The several advertisements on the page all relate to the same topic and therefore cannot bore the reader. The sources of materials from Wikipedia are not known. Worse still, anonymous writers can join the team and make changes to an existing document. Therefore, the information from such sources can only be used to obtain a general overview of a topic. This can then be used to obtain references from the valid

Rise of the New Right in the 1970s and 1980s Essay

Rise of the New Right in the 1970s and 1980s - Essay Example Johnson, galvanized the formation of a new political movement. In elite think-tanks and local community organizations alike, new policies, marketing strategies, and electoral strategies were crafted over the succeeding details. The New Right succeeded in building a policy approach and electoral apparatus that propelled Ronald Reagan into the White House in the 1980 presidential election. The American New Right is distinct from and opposed to the more moderate tradition of the so-called Rockefeller Republicans. The New Right also differs from the Old Right on issues concerning foreign policy with the New Right being opposed to the non-interventionism of the Old Right" (Kotlowitz, 1999). There are many different issues within the New Right that are relevant and significant, and the aim of this paper is to address and discuss the social, political and economic conditions that contributed to the actual rise of the New Right in the 1970s and 1980s. By doing this, we will be able to gain a much more informed and knowledgeable understanding on the subject matter at hand overall, particularly in regards to the important matter of the rise of the New Right in the United States. This is what will be dissertated in the following. There were really a number of different factors which contributed to the rise of the New Right in the 1970s and 1980s, and since the 1980... In order to be able to truly and properly characterize such an incredible shift primarily in terms of the conspiratorial maneuvering of an otherwise tightly kept and organized New Right seems relatively tempting, however still rather simplistic at the same time, considering the fact that there is a certain pervasiveness to the rightward pull. After all, if we really think about it and properly consider all of the present facts, what we are seeing in regards to this matter is not just that of a well-orchestrated right-wing offensive, but as well it is actually the demise of the liberal state overall, and not only that but some of its more progressive ideas as well. This includes some of the most major and significant progressive ideas of all, such as equality, individual freedom, and social welfare needs, for example. Clearly then the New Right is not at all alone in regards to the abandoning of liberalism, and in fact the dogma which refers to the issue of how social programs, particularly those for the poorer people, tend to represent a certain intrusiveness by the state and are really emanated from the Moral Majority, for the most part. It also must be known that the evidence which has been shown, especially over recent years in particular, is truly unimpeachable, and that "the political right in America no longer stands for individual rights, limited government and capitalism. The 'rightists' now advocate expanding the welfare state, increasing government intrusion into our intimate private affairs, and sacrificing American lives to foreign paupers. They call it 'advancing the cause of freedom'" (Kotlowitz, 1999). In other words, one of the most major and significant aspects which contributed to the rise of the New Right is

The Hacking Threats and Vulnerablilities of Wireless Networks in Term Paper

The Hacking Threats and Vulnerablilities of Wireless Networks in Organizations - Term Paper Example This increases their chances of interception, disruption and alteration as compared to wired networks. Confidentiality can be highly compromised if the message is not encrypted. This can allow an unauthorized person to read the message. Sources of Threats and Vulnerabilities in Wireless Networks In wireless networks four basic technology components face security threats. These are; the transmission medium, access points, client devices (for example computers, PDAs) and the clients. Each one of them can become a loophole for any or all the other components to be attacked. Unauthorized access to an organizations wireless network can result from an accidental association. This is where someone outside the organization turns their computer on and it connects to the organization’s network from a wireless Access Point (AP) (Anthes and Hoffman, 2003). Though it is not intentional, it compromises on the confidentiality of the organization’s information. It could lead to a link from one organization to another. Hacking can also be done by people forming a malicious association. They make their own wireless devices to connect to the organization’s network. They use a cracking laptop, called â€Å"soft AP†, to access the organization’s information instead using the of organization’s AP. ... According to Anthes and Hoffman (2003), hackers can be able to listen to an organization’s communications and identify the MAC address of the organization’s computer. This is called Identity theft /MAC spoofing. Hackers use programs that tend to ‘sniff’ networks hence gain unauthorized access to an organization’s network. They also use some software that makes a computer to pretend to have all MAC addresses required by the hacker. A computer can be enticed to log into another computer that has been set up as a soft AP by hackers. This allows a cracker to link to an organization’s legal AP using a wireless card that offers a continuous traffic flow through the hacking computer (Anthes and Hoffman, 2003). hackers can also utilize existing security faults and abuse of protocols example Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP) to carry out a â€Å"de-authentication attack†. This is where the organization’s computers connected to the organization’s AP drop their connections and connect to the soft AP of the cracker. Software such as LANjack and AirJack enhance hacking because they automate multiple steps of the connection process (Clay, 2006). Hackers can launch attacks meant to deny the organization services through the organization’s network. This is called Denial of service (DoS). A cracker will bombard an organization’s AP or network with, premature successful connection messages, bogus requests and other commands. As a result of this, the organization may no longer access their network. The network can also crash as a result of this (Clay, 2006).Hackers can also inject false network re-configuration commands. This will tamper with the intelligent hubs, routers and

Business Law Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Business Law - Assignment Example The offeror cannot just cancel an offer once it is made. When an offer is made, the offeree (the one the offer is made to) can decide whether to take it or not within a reasonable timeframe. Since an offer puts some kinds of obligations on the offeror, there is the need to define what constitutes an offer. In this definition, there are some exceptions to the rule. When a person makes an indication that another person can enter negotiations for a contract, this is not an offer, it is an invitation to treat. A typical example of an invitation to treat is the case of the display of goods in a shop window. In Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain V Boots Cash Chemists (1953) it was held that goods displayed in a shop does not constitute an offer but an invitation to treat. Additionally, the declaration of an intent is not an offer. In Harris V Nickerson (1873), an auctioneer advertised the sale of goods in an auction. However, he refused to hold the auction on the said date. A prospect ive attendant sued for a breach. It was held that the advert was simply a declaration of intent but not an offer. Application In this, the advertisement by Gift House that they have reduced their A1 cameras was not an offer. It can be considered an invitation to treat. ... They are mere invitation to treat and declaration of intent respectively. Due to this, Martin does not have the right to purchase the camera at ?50. Davina Issue Davina gets informed that the A1 Camera (which sells for ?100) goes for ?50 in the shop. The shop also states that if anyone purchases goods worth ?500 by 1st December, there will be a free television. Davina mails an order for the camera and the goods totaling ?500 and indicates she wants the free television on 30th November. Davina receives the goods but finds out that she was charged ?100 for the camera and she did not get the television which was promised. The issue is whether the postal order created a legal contract that gives her rights to the camera at ?100 as well as the television set. Rule In Carlill V Carbolic Smoke Ball (1893), the defendants advertised to pay ?100 to anyone who caught flu after using smoke their smokeballs. Mrs Carlill used the smoke balls but caught flu. She argued that she was entitled to the ?100 promised. It was held that the offer was one that a reasonable person could take seriously. Secondly, the postal rule is established in the case of Adams V Lindsell (1818). It states that acceptance of an offer takes effect once the acceptance letter is posted. Application In this case, Davina saw a catalogue that advertised two things: the sale of a camera at ?50 and an offer of a free TV when a customer shops to the tune of ?500. This is something that the average person could take seriously and follow up. Davina followed up by making an order through post on the 30th of November. This order was a valid claim for the A1 Camera at ?50 and the TV prize since she shopped to the tune of ?500. According to the postal rule, this postage

The Hacking Threats and Vulnerablilities of Wireless Networks in Term Paper

The Hacking Threats and Vulnerablilities of Wireless Networks in Organizations - Term Paper Example This increases their chances of interception, disruption and alteration as compared to wired networks. Confidentiality can be highly compromised if the message is not encrypted. This can allow an unauthorized person to read the message. Sources of Threats and Vulnerabilities in Wireless Networks In wireless networks four basic technology components face security threats. These are; the transmission medium, access points, client devices (for example computers, PDAs) and the clients. Each one of them can become a loophole for any or all the other components to be attacked. Unauthorized access to an organizations wireless network can result from an accidental association. This is where someone outside the organization turns their computer on and it connects to the organization’s network from a wireless Access Point (AP) (Anthes and Hoffman, 2003). Though it is not intentional, it compromises on the confidentiality of the organization’s information. It could lead to a link from one organization to another. Hacking can also be done by people forming a malicious association. They make their own wireless devices to connect to the organization’s network. They use a cracking laptop, called â€Å"soft AP†, to access the organization’s information instead using the of organization’s AP. ... According to Anthes and Hoffman (2003), hackers can be able to listen to an organization’s communications and identify the MAC address of the organization’s computer. This is called Identity theft /MAC spoofing. Hackers use programs that tend to ‘sniff’ networks hence gain unauthorized access to an organization’s network. They also use some software that makes a computer to pretend to have all MAC addresses required by the hacker. A computer can be enticed to log into another computer that has been set up as a soft AP by hackers. This allows a cracker to link to an organization’s legal AP using a wireless card that offers a continuous traffic flow through the hacking computer (Anthes and Hoffman, 2003). hackers can also utilize existing security faults and abuse of protocols example Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP) to carry out a â€Å"de-authentication attack†. This is where the organization’s computers connected to the organization’s AP drop their connections and connect to the soft AP of the cracker. Software such as LANjack and AirJack enhance hacking because they automate multiple steps of the connection process (Clay, 2006). Hackers can launch attacks meant to deny the organization services through the organization’s network. This is called Denial of service (DoS). A cracker will bombard an organization’s AP or network with, premature successful connection messages, bogus requests and other commands. As a result of this, the organization may no longer access their network. The network can also crash as a result of this (Clay, 2006).Hackers can also inject false network re-configuration commands. This will tamper with the intelligent hubs, routers and

Challenges Doing Business in India Essay Example for Free

Challenges Doing Business in India Essay Trade barriers are created to encourage domestic players by making it more difficult for foreign firms to compete. Traditionally, India has had several types of trade hurdles for foreign exporters, such as, Import Quotas, Subsidies, Trade Samples and Tariff/Duty. The most critical barrier to trade is tariffs or the tax imposed on imports. High tariffs in several sectors continue to bar foreign businesses from increased market access. Red-tapism and Corruption Traditionally, Indian bureaucracy has been mired in red tape which proved to be a frustrating experience for foreign investors. These include limited access to Government offices, cumbersome and multitude paperwork, lack of coordination between various departments processing the documentation, long waiting period for approvals, and above all ambiguous rules. However, with the economic reforms of early 1990s, the level of bureaucratic hurdles which the MNCs had to overcome, gradually reduced making it easier to do business. Corruption is another big hurdle when doing business in India. Areas like electricity supply, judiciary (particularly lower courts), Police, land administration are counted in the most corrupt category. Since all these are essential in building up a business, corruption proves to be a major hurdle for starting business in India. Inadequate Infrastructure It has long been felt that roads and communication in India need substantial investment in order to make them world class. Problems with the countrys education and power situation are also counted amongst the toughest obstacles for doing business. Today, there is an increased private participation in ports, roads and other key sectors. Infrastructure development has emerged as a niche market for foreign investors in India with several states looking to build world class infrastructure. The problem area is the absence of a clear-cut policy framework, which has hampered private investment in the infrastructure sector.

Globalization Literature

Globalization Literature AHONARUOGHO YEWANDE Globalization is an undeniable phenomenon, which is rather hard to put into words and as a result can be explained in various ways. Globalization which encompasses variant aspects of the modern world, bringing nations of the world closer into a single society through culture, economic transactions, politics, technology and social interactions; is making an ever changing world. GPF (online) [n.d] According to Beck (2000) [online] Globalization regardless of how it is individually interpreted gives the implication of the deterioration of a state’s sovereign poewer and the structures that guide the territory. â€Å"The world-wide interconnectedness between nation-states becomes supplemented by globalization as a process in which basic social arrangements (like power, culture, markets, politics, rights, values, norms, ideology, identity, citizenship, solidarity) become disembedded from their spatial context (mainly the nation-state) due to the acceleration, massification, flexibilisation, diffusion and expansion of transnational flows of people, products, finance, images and information† this states that due to the increased flexibility and ease of mobility of many factors in an economy that social arrangements have become disembedded from their nation states, all of which is known as globalisation. beerkens (2004) [online] â€Å"The characteristics of the globalization trend include the internationalizing of production, the new international division of labor, new migratory movements from South to North, the new competitive environment that generates these processes, and the internationalizing of the state making states into agencies of the globalizing world.† This quote is informing about the concepts and characteristics that make up globalization focusing on the internationalization of many aspects of economies. Cox (1994) [online] Nations tend to come together in form of global unions, these unions are economic to some extent, and such exist within trade blocs. Trade bloc is an agreement which is formed between states, regions or countries in order to reduce the trade barriers which make trading inconvenient, amongst the regions involved. A well know example of this form is NAFTA, which is a trade agreement between the United States, Canada, and Mexico. Opponents to trade blocs view such agreements are harmful to free trade on a global level Investorwords (online) [n.d]. Trade blocs have rules that guide their interaction with nations within the economic union as well as those that are not members of the union. Manish (2012) [online] Trade blocs are of different varieties, requiring different levels of commitment and arrangements from the members of the union. To be of the view that globalization is purely an economic union would be false and incorrect as just trade blocs show globalization as six different forms of unions. Manish (2012) [online] Trade blocs have certain objectives goal which they aim to achieve, one of which is to remove the restrictions to trade among the members of the union, there by promoting free trade and faster movement of resources between members. BMS (2013) [online] Trade blocs aim to improve the social, economical, cultural and political relationship between its members through the integration of economies, social programs could encourage this promoting peace in the region. BMS (2013) [online] Trade blocs have the objective of achieving an increase in economic growth amongst its members. As a result in the reduction in trade barriers, it puts firms in a position to produce at lower prices, which would in turn increase demand and lead to a large scale of production. This can result in economic growth and attract investment. BMS (2013) [online] A Preferential Trade Areas is also a type of trade bloc, interconnecting the nations of the world on an economic level, this is the least committed to trade barrier reductions. In this union members lower but do not eliminate trade barriers amongst themselves and no set arrangement is agreed about their interactions with non- members. Manish (2012) [online] Free Trade Area is the next stage after, the Preferential Trade areas, all trade barriers are eliminated for members when relating with each other, so all the members are able to import and export goods and services amongst themselves. An example is the ‘North American free trade agreement’ of 1994 between the Canadians, Mexicans and the US; these members establish independent trade policies when relating with non members. Manish (2012) [online] another free trade area example is the European Free Trade Area. Shahid (2010) [online] Customs Union is the third trade bloc. The member states remove internal trade barriers as well as also agree to implement the same set of common policies when dealing with non member states. Customs union of Russia, Belarus and Kazakhstan, which was initially created in 2010, is a custom union; other custom unions include European Union Custom Council, East African Community. Manish (2012) [online] The Common Market is a trade union where member’s internal trade barriers are removed, common policies/ barriers are implemented for dealing with trade involving outside parties and free movement of resources such as ‘labor’ exist. Examples of common market include â€Å"Mercosur (Southern Cone Market)†, East â€Å"African Common Market†, European Economic Area and â€Å"West African Common market†. Manish (2012) [online] An economic union is one of the trade blocs that exist between nations that further make the nations of the world more integrated and connected. It requires members to remove internal barriers and agree to use common barriers for externally, allowing free movement of resources and adopt a unified set of economic policies. The European Union is an example of such; with one currency they have adopted one monetary policy. Manish (2012) [online] An economic union such as the European Union speeds up the process of globalization, increasing trade amongst the members of the EU as well as increased labor and capital mobility such as migration of Poland citizens to the United Kingdom and Ireland. The EU has expanded its sphere of influence to over 20 countries, making for over 356 million in population. Pettinger (2008) [online] Other economic unions include CEMC (economic and monetary community of central America), OECS (organization of eastern Caribbean states), UEMAO (west African economic and monetary union).shahid (2010) [online] In addition to the integration of the nations belonging to the trade blocs it is also seen that globalization is further aided by trade blocs which make negotiations easier on a global level. An case relating to trading negotiations is, the European Union bargains as one singular bloc making it easier and faster to push through practices which increase free trade. Pettinger (2008) [online] Full Integration is the final stage, coming after economic union. The members become fully integrated; an example is the United States. Manish (2012) [online] When viewing the definition, principles and aims of both globalization and trade blocs, they complement each other, both resulting in interdependence and increase in trade; Wang (2010) [online]. As a result it is easy to assume that globalization is purely an economic union formed by trade blocs. However, it should be noted that trade blocs can be seen as a hindrance to globalization because it promotes regionalization and not global elimination of trade barriers, causing conflicting parties to fight for regional interest; thereby building trade barriers for the rest of the world and preventing the importation of goods from other countries; Wang (2010) [online].This contradicts with globalizations purpose of one world and interlinking of all nations and â€Å"free trade† amongst all; Wang (2010) [online]. For example, the EU’s CAP placed high tariffs on importation of food and the dumping of surplus food items onto world markets. Pettinger (2008) [online] Trade blocs especially at its most integrated economic level when a common currency is established and a common fiscal policy within the union exists among the members- economic union- it leads to reduction of the power and sovereignty of a national government over its own territory. Although the states can take independent decisions to influence the total demand, income allocation and the level of production of their economies through the use of simple fiscal policies unless common fiscal policy is implemented in the economic union. As a result monetary and fiscal policy integration is the basis for an economic union and the application deepens the integration of its members, making it a single economic union and removes all kinds of economic borders. Hashimov (2013) [online] Trade blocs provide a larger market for exportation of goods, this creates a forum for the global products which can be linked between nations of the world, and this creates the possibility for more revenue for nation states. Admin (2012) [online] Trade blocs due to the integration of markets leads to increase in competition and productivity on the part of the nations belonging to the same trade bloc, ensuring to produce quality goods while the consumers had increased choice and lower prices due to the size of the market and number of competitors. Admin (2012) [online] Trade blocs make for a higher and increased rate of investment due to the larger market available as market is expanded. Admin (2012) [online] Trade blocs however have the negative effect, for example they undermine the efforts of WTO (world trade organization) because there is a possibility that the whole world would become regionalized and that would prevent trade liberations due to the rules and norms associated with trade blocs. Trade blocs would deter the WTO goals and undermine international trade laws. Admin (2012) [online] Trade blocs have the negative effect to globalization of creating unfriendly political tension and â€Å"hindering diplomatic relations† between members of a trade bloc and non member through discriminatory policies. Admin (2012) [online] Other factors unrelated to the trade blocs are important and significant to globalization. The main contributing factors to globalization could be argued but these are some factors that are contributing: Improvement in technology which enable global transport and communication to be carried out much easier, which also helps reduce the barriers of distance. Pettinger (2008) [online] the level of improvement in technology of transport and communications has led to a reduction in the prices for transferring goods, service and factors of production as well as making it easier and cheaper to communicate economically useful knowledge and technology. Mussa(2000) [online] Information technology is a main contributor in the process of globalization in form of a catalyst, it increases the accessibility of information and economic potential. Enabling for efficiency in the economies of nations as political and commercial information can be transferred easily and at a fast rate. Information technology encourages the creative use of resources to promote and advertise new products and ideas across borders and cultures regardless of its geographical location. Technology is now the leading factor of the modern world creating employment, new ideas, and networking sites which enables global connection and communication.globalisation101 (n.d) [online] The growth of multinational companies. Pettinger (2008) [online] Globalization is also a political union of nations around the world, there are military-political blocs existing which is a union among states that have agreed to unite, cooperate and have unified actions and responses to address common political, economic and military tasks. Encyclopedia(1979) [online] an example of a political union is NATO. G. Bertucci and A. Alberti , wrote an article â€Å"Globalization and The Role of the State: Challenges and Perspectives†, in which it was stressed that economic globalization is in actuality as a result of political decisions made my nation. Stating that the expansion of international trade as well as finance and investment Transactions do not radically influence the role of nations while the high level of collaboration and joint active show states exercising their sovereign authority over their territories. Thus the authors are of the view that collaborative action instead of weakening their authority over their state reinforces their authority by creating a more secure global environment and greater possibility for exchanges in different areas. Hashimov (2013) [online] Globalization is also an economic union, it impacts employment, working conditions, income and social protection. Beyond the world of work, the social dimension encompasses security, culture and identity, inclusion or exclusion and the cohesiveness of families and communities. Todayszaman (2010) [online] In conclusion, globalization is an economic union of nations after all globalization is generally referred to as â€Å"economic globalization† as it brings nations of the world together and forms a more integrated and interdependent world. Economic union has led to increased flow of information and ideas, and had led to a change in the way nations interact amongst themselves. However it should be noted that economic unions can be seen as a hindrance to globalization itself which contradicts the view that globalization is an economic union and in addition globalization is also a political and social phenomenon not solely economical. Bibliography Electronic devices Admin (2012) [online], advantages and disadvantages of trading blocs, available at http://wisebrain.info/explain-the-advantages-and-disadvantages-of-joining-a-trading-bloc-international/, [accessed on the 3rd of February] Beck (2000) [online], what globalization represents, available at http://www.beerkens.info/files/globalisation.pdf, [accessed on the 1st of February] Beerkens (2004) [online], How globalization is affecting the world, available at http://www.beerkens.info/files/globalisation.pdf , [accessed on the 1st of February] BMS (2013) [online], objectives of trade blocs, available at http://www.bms.co.in/objectives-of-trading-blocs/, [accessed on the 3rd of February] Cox (1994) [online], understanding the chaacterisyics of globalization, available at http://www.beerkens.info/files/globalisation.pdf, [accessed on the 1st of February] Encyclopedia (1979) [online], definition of political blocs, available at http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Military+Bloc, [accessed on the 3rd of February] GPF (online) [n.d], globalization definition, available at http://www.globalpolicy.org/globalization/defining-globalization.html, [accessed on the 2nd of February] Hashimov (2013) [online], economic globalization and the role of nation-state in economy, available at http://www.academia.edu/3721679/ECONOMIC_GLOBALIZATION_AND_THE_ROLE_OF_NATION-STATE_IN_ECONOMY_THE_CASE_OF_EU, [accessed on the 2nd of February] Manish (2012) [online], compositions of trade blocs, available at http://financetrain.com/trading-blocs-common-markets-and-economic-unions/, [accessed on the 3rd of February] Mussa(2000) [online], driving factors of economic integration, available at http://www.imf.org/external/np/speeches/2000/082500.htm, [accessed on the 2nd of February] Pettinger (2008) [online], The significance of economic blocs to globalization, available at http://www.economicshelp.org/blog/1019/economics/trading-blocks-and-globalisation/, [accessed on the 2nd of February] shahid (2010) [online], trading blocs and globalization, available at http://www.slideshare.net/Abdullah2012/globalization-trading-blocks, [accessed on 3rd of February[ Wang (2010) [online], relationship between regional trading blocs and globalization, available at http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/ijef/article/viewFile/4955/4119, [accessed on the 2nd of February] Todayszaman (2010) [online], social and cultural impact of globalization, available at http://www.todayszaman.com/columnists/dogu-ergil_204938-social-and-cultural-impacts-of-globalization.html, [accessed on the 3rd of February] 1

Margaret Hilda Thatcher Essay examples -- essays research papers

Margaret Hilda Thatcher Margaret Hilda Thatcher's overwhelming sense of self-confidence and ambition ruled her life from the time she was a small child in Grantham, though her Oxford years and during her early years in politics. It led her to become the first female Prime Minister of Great Britain, and also helped through her difficult political years as "Attila the Hun". Britain's first female Prime Minister was born on October 13, 1925 in a small room over a grocer's shop in Grandham, England. Margaret Hilda was the second daughter of Alfred and Beatrice Roberts. She often stated that she was brought up very strictly: I owe everything in my life to two things: a good home, and a good education. My home was ordinary, but good in the sense that my parents were passionately interested in the future of my sister and myself. At the same time, they gave us a good education - not only in school, but at home as well (Gardiner, 1975, p.13). As a child, thrift and practicality were instilled in Margaret's character. The Methodist church played an active part in the lives of the Roberts. She attended good schools as a child and spent her years studying with the intent of attending Oxford. Margaret arrived at Oxford in the autumn of 1943. During her years here, Margaret worked in a canteen for the war effort, continued her interest in music by joining various choirs and joined the Oxford University Conservative Association where she became very active in it's political activities. After Oxford, Margaret became the youngest female candidate of the Dartford Association. She was unofficially engaged to Denis Thatcher at this time, and they married in December 1951. Twins were born the following year. During this period, she studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1954. In the same year she was a candidate for the Oysington Conservative Association. Margaret won in a Tory landslide at Finchley, a suburb of London in 1959. Her parliamentary career had begun. A stroke of good luck gave her the opportunity of presenting her first bill almost immediately. This bill was to allow the press to attend the meetings of the local councils. The bill was eventually passed and it greatly enhanced her reputation. In 1964 she was part of the opposition... ... "ideology is empirical and instinctive, but not the product of great study or reflection, and it amounts to a rather simple (though not unsophisticated) radical libertarianism"(Mayer, 1979, p.11). Mayer goes on to say that she is hardly a mother-figure for a nation. Though she is caring and considerate with close associates, she does not project warmth or humor. The public sees her as a strict nanny, not a loving mommy. She is tough minded and has great stamina and a tenacious spirit. Thatcher has stated that she has never doubted her fundamental convictions. Margaret Thatcher grew up in an era when women were not normally successful as politicians or as business women. Even so, she managed to transform her sex from a liability to a major political asset. She may have been unpopular at times due to her approach to life and politics, but a "softer" female Prime Minister might not have been as effective. Recognition was earned through her overwhelming sense of ambition and dedication to the job: "Thatcher, Milk Snatcher" was bestowed the title Baroness and there-by received the recognition that she had craved all her life.

German Expressionism and Its Roots :: essays papers

German Expressionism and Its Roots Personal freedom and alternative thinking -- these were the conditions in Weimar Republic Germany during the heyday of the Expressionist movement in film. Spanning the years 1909-1924, theirs was a time of revolution (in Russia and Germany), war (World War I), and reaction (the rise of National Socialism in Germany). Anxious about the disintegration of their culture, filmmakers such as F.W. Murnau, Robert Wiene, and Ernst Lubitsch used cinema to create new forms of visual representation, exploring the possibility of reversing power relations through the look. The cinematic Expressionist movement in Germany is generally considered to be the classic period of German cinema; many Expressionist works are included in the canon of the world’s greatest films. From Lubitsch’s masterpieces â€Å"Passion† (1919) and â€Å"Deception† (1920), through Wiene’s famous â€Å"The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari† (1919), to Murnau’s brilliant â€Å"The Last Laugh† (1924) and â€Å"Nosferatu† (1922), there has rarely been a movement of such consistent inspiration and achievement. Expressionism in cinema, as in the other arts, attempts to â€Å"reappropriate an alienated universe by transforming it into a private, personal vision.† With that in mind, Expressionist cinema tried to deepen the audience’s interaction with the film, combining technology and imaginative filming techniques in order to intensify the illusion of reality. The Expressionists practically reinvented the look of film with innovative and unusual editing rhythms, perspectivally distorted sets, exaggerated gestures, and the famous â€Å"camera unchained† -- a new technique that allowed the camera to move within the scene, vastly increasing the accessibility of the character’s subjective point of view. The Expressionists developed new habits of seeing,

Love in the English Medieval Period Essay

INTRODUCTION The romance of Courtly Love practiced during the Middle Ages was combined with the Code of Chivalry. There were strict rules of courtly love and the members of the courts practiced the art of courtly love across Europe during the Middle Ages. The romance, rules and art of courtly love allowed knights and ladies to show their admiration regardless of their marital state. It was a common occurrence for a married lady to give a token to a knight of her choice to be worn during a medieval tournament. There were rules, which governed courtly love, but sometimes the parties, who started their relationship with such elements of courtly love, would become deeply involved. Examples of relationships, which were stirred by romantic courtly love, chivalry and romance, are described in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight and Chaucer’s Wife of Bath. Many illicit court romances were fuelled by the practice and art of courtly love. The most fertile field of the romance genre was the Arthurian rom ance. Closely related to the romance tradition were two idealized standards of behavior: chivalry and courtly love. Many modern people think of chivalry as referring to a man’s gallant treatment of  women, and although that sense is derived from the medieval chivalric ideal, chivalry includes more than that. Many modern people think of chivalry as referring to a man’s gallant treatment of women, and although that sense is derived from the medieval chivalric ideal, chivalry includes more than that. Broadly speaking, chivalry, derived from the old French term for a soldier mounted on horseback, was a knight’s code of conduct. There was no single set of chivalric rules, but the existence of popular medieval chivalric handbooks testifies that chivalry was a well-known concept. Knights formed a distinct segment of medieval society, which was often thought of as being composed of three classes: those who pray (the clergy), those who fight (the nobility), and those who work (the peasants). Most knights belonged to the nobility, if only because a knight’s equipment horses, weapons, armor, required considerable resources to fund. Violence, often bloody and horrific violence, was at the heart of what knights did. As highly skilled and well-armed fighting men, knights could be a force either for creating social chaos or for maintaining public order. Unit 1- Background research on courtly love and chivalry 1.1 Courtly love developed in the twelfth century among the troubadours of southern France, but soon spread into the neighboring countries and eventually colored the literature of most of Western Europe for centuries. It originated in the writings of the poet Ovid Ars Amatoria (‘The Art of Love’). Andrà © the Chaplain (or Andreas Cappellanus), took as his model, Ovid’s ‘Ars Amatoria ‘ (the Art of Loving). Ovid’s work concerns how to seduce a woman, and among its rules are appropriate forms of dress, approach, conversation, and toying with a lady’s affections, all designed to amuse. In the Ars Amatoria, the man is in control, and the woman is simply his prey. But Andrà © turned the Ars Amatoria upside-down. In his â€Å"Liber de arte honeste amandi et reprobatione inhonesti amoris† (â€Å"Book of the Art of Loving Nobly and the Reprobation of Dishonourable Love†), the woman becomes the mistress of the game. It is she who sets the rules and passes judgment on the hopeful suitor. In Ovid’s work the lover sighs with passion for his pursuit, but in le Chapelain’s Liber the passion is pure and entirely for the love of a lady. The rules outlined in Andrà ©Ã¢â‚¬â„¢s work are in many ways far  from the reality of the times. In the medieval world, women rarely had any power to speak of. The nobility were warriors, and the arts of war, leadership and politics occupied their minds. More often than not, a noblemen thought of his wife, (or future wife) as a breeder, a servant, and a source of sexual gratification (his, not hers). Fidelity on her part was absolutely necessary to ensure the validity of the bloodline. Fidelity on his part wasn’t an issue. Under any other circumstances, le Chapelain’s Liber might have remained an interesting literary exercise (as Ovid’s Ars Amatoria was intended to be); or it might have been ignored or laughed out of serious literary circles. But with the historical background at precisely the right stage of development, in the court of Eleanor and under the guidance of Marie, Andrà ©Ã¢â‚¬â„¢s ‘Art of Loving Nobly’ was literature to be lived. Two women who had a particular influence on the development of romance were Eleanor of Aquitaine, queen first of France and then of England, and her daughter Marie, Countess of Champagne (in Eastern France). Eleanor brought to the English court her interest in poetry, music and the arts, all of which were cultivated at the court of Aquitaine where she grew up (her grandfather William was the first known troubadour poet). In the vernacular narratives that were written for and dedicated to Eleanor-early ‘romances’-we find an emphasis on the sort of love relationship that is depicted in troubadour poetry, commonly known as ‘courtly love’ (fin’amors in Provenà §al, the language of troubadour poetry). The ‘courtly love’ relationship is modeled on the feudal relationship between a knight and his liege lord. The knight serves his courtly lady (love service) with the same obedience and loyalty, which he owes to his liege lord. She is in complete control of the love relationship, while he owes her obedience and submission (a literary convention that did not correspond to actual practice!) The knight’s love for the lady inspires him to do great deeds, in order to be worthy of her love or to win her favor. Thus ‘courtly love’ was originally construed as an ennobling force whether or not it was consummated, and even whether or not the lady knew about the knight’s love or loved him in return. The ‘courtly love’ relationship typically was not between husband and wife, not because the poets and the audience were inherently immoral, but because  it was an idealized sort of relationship that could not exist within the context of ‘real life’ medieval marriages. In the middle ages, marriages amongst the nobility were typically based on practical and dynastic concerns rather than on love. The idea that a marriage could be based on love was a radical notion. But the audience for romance was perfectly aware that these romances were fictions, not models for actual behavior. The adulterous aspect that bothers many 20th-century readers was somewhat beside the point, which was to explore the potential influence of love on human behavior. Social historians such as Eric Kà ¶hler and Georges Duby have hypothesized that â€Å"courtly love† may have served a useful social purpose: providing a model of behavior for a class of unmarried young men that might otherwise have threatened social stability. Knights were typically younger brothers without land of their own (hence unable to support a wife) who became members of the household of the feudal lords whom they served. One reason why the lady in the courtly love relationship is typically older, married and of higher social status than the knight may be because she was modeled on the wife of the feudal lord, who might naturally become the focus of the young, unmarried knights’ desire. Kà ¶hler and Duby posit that the literary model of the courtly love relationship may have been invented in part to provide these young men with a model for appropriate behavior, teaching them to sublimate their desires and to channel their energy into socially useful behavior ( love service rather than wandering around the countryside, stealing or raping women like the knight in the ‘ Wife of Bath’s tale). Ovid described the â€Å"symptoms† of love as if it were a sickness. The â€Å"lovesick† knight became a conventional figure in medieval romance. Typical symptoms: sighing, turning pale, turning red, fever, inability to sleep, eat or drink. Romances often contained long interior monologues in which the lovers describe their feelings. For the troubadours of 12th C France who introduced it into literature, Courtly love had two basic, essential characteristics: Love is irresistible and it is an ennobling force. No one is exempt from the service of the God of love who rules this world and extramarital sexual love, sinful to Christians, is the sole source of worldly worth and excellence. All the other characteristics of love that appear in the Canterbury Tales, for example, are simply trappings  decorations. These belong to the general body of love literature. Yet these trappings, so ludicrous when exaggerated, have caused courtly love to be confused with romantic love and have brought it into disrepute. Since love is irresistible, nothing done under its compulsion can be immoral; since humans are worthless unless they acts under this compulsion, the necessity of practicing love in incumbent on each person. Courtly love not only approves and encourages whatever fans and provokes sensual desire, it not only condones fornication, adultery, and sacrilege, but it represents them as necessary sources of what it calls virtue. Love is a union of heart and mind as well as body. Sensuality for its own sake, the enjoyment of fleshly delights of and for themselves, is contrary to courtly love. The wanton and the promiscuous practice such love. Hence, in the courtly love code fidelity is its greatest virtue and infidelity its greatest vice. Yet the Roman Church formally condemned both principles of courtly love. Archbishop Stephen Tempier at Paris condemned the irresistibility of love and love as the sole source of human worth on March 7, 1277. 1.2 What is Chivalry? Chivalry is a system of discipline and social interaction that is derived from the warrior class of medieval times, especially and primarily the class of trained warriors who participated in the Crusades (12th-14th centuries). Chivalry has a discipline because those ancient soldiers trained themselves daily through learning and practicing the arts of attack and self-defense. These arts gave rise to the idea of control of the body, mind, and speech in the Knight. Further, the idea of social interaction developed because the Knight originally followed carefully the orders of his superiors who were interested only in battle with those who were eligible to fight, that is, civilians were not to be engaged in battle. From this idea of engaging only other Knights developed the idea of treating enemies and friends fairly and equally. Men who excelled in battle were honored with Knighthood, an honor first granted by Knights only. Then, later, as the honor of being a Knight grew, both Monarchy and the Church (Eastern Orthodox as well as Roman Catholic) began to participate in the selection and creation of Knights. While the ideals of Knighthood were often violated by the Knight warriors themselves, yet the  ideals survived as Knighthood came to be thought of as an honor to be bestowed upon those who had proven themselves worthy. When the practice of the volunteer army and the need for Knights as warriors faded away, the concept of the honorable and self-disciplined Knight remained, and the rank and status of Knight began to take on aspects of minor Nobility that one could achieve (rather than having to be born into). As an honor and status that men sought, Knighthood became a valuable gift and boon for Kings and Church to grant, either individually as a ‘Knight Bachelor’ or as membership in an Order of Chivalry. Chivalry sets a standard of conduct that transcends era or culture. It maintains a code of conduct that traditionally [upholds] a practical guide to living in a changing world, and it provides discipline within an undisciplined environment. Chivalry embraces a spiritual path of personal development that combines bravery and gentleness with a fierce compassion for the welfare of others. The knight’s interest and goal in life is to protect those who cannot defend, be it physical, spiritual, or economical and to fulfill a desire for personal excellence. UNIT 2 – The chivalrous ideal and courtly love in ’’Sir gawain and the Green Knight’’ and ’’The Wife of Bath ’’ 2.1 A knight’s behavior toward women, at least in the romance tradition, was governed by another standard known as courtly love. Medieval writers did not necessarily use that term, but it is a convenient modern label for an idea that appears frequently in medieval literature. In Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, the poet’s term for it is â€Å"courtesy.† Scholars have debated whether courtly love was a social reality or purely a literary fiction, but in either case, it was a pervasive and influential notion. The ties between the romance genre and the courtly love tradition were well established even at this time, for when Cappellanus offered his â€Å"rules of love,† he brackets them with a story involving a knight on the way to the court of King Arthur. The courtly lover was a man (often a knight) who devoted himself to the service of his beloved lady, making himself her servant; if he was a knight; all of his brave deeds were dedicated to his lady. Marriage to others was not a barrier to such love affairs, which were to be kept secret, with clandestine meetings and messages between the lovers relayed by go-betweens.  The lovers usually exchanged gifts or favors, normally a personal item such as a ring, glove, or girdle, all of which appear in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. True lovers became faint or sick with the strength of their love; sleeplessness, lack of appetite, and jealousy were all symptoms of true love. A lover was expected to have fine manners and display perfect gentility. As with chivalry, the tension between courtly love and Christian morality was unavoidable. Much of the courtly love tradition assumed that the lovers would consummate their relationship sexually, regardless of whether they were married. A more Christianized version of courtly love placed the lover in courteous but decidedly chaste service to his beloved. Like chivalry, courtly love may have been more of an ideal than an actual practice, but that did not lessen its cultural importance. At first glance, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight seem to be a relatively simple story about the quest of a knight in Arthurian Camelot. Upon further examination, however, it becomes clear that interwoven within the simple plotline is an intricate relationship between men and women with an emphasis on the values of the time. Throughout this work, we are privy to a variety of literal and figurative dichotomies including those between men and women, court values and church values, girdle and pentacle, the Green Knight and Sir Gawain, Guinevere and Morgan de Fay, and the Virgin Mary and Lady Bertilak. During the medieval period, the court and the church were of utmost importance – codes of chivalry in the court were substantial factors in dictating the etiquette and specific behaviors of people – as demonstrated through its literature. What seems to have happened in medieval literature is this: the pre-courtly love literature presented a fairly accurate portrait of women’s role in society. Then, with the advent of courtly love some authors felt the need to conform the role of women in literature to that which was assigned to them by the philosophy of courtly love. (Malcor). In a sense, the medieval work in question does not seem to draw exclusively from either the pre-courtly or courtly genres in its discussion of the role of women, rather we see a multitude of different women portrayed in clearly contrasting manners. Most notably, Lady Bertalik becomes a major figure of this work, as well as a symbol of knightly virtues, or lack thereof. In the third part of Sir Gawain  and the Green Knight, the story turns to Sir Gawain and Lady Bertalik; on three successive days, Lady Bertalik meets Sir Gawain in his bedchambers and attempts to seduce him. During the first two days, though tempting, Gawain manages to remain a model of both courtly and religious restraint and behavior; meanwhile, Lady Bertalik extends herself as the aforementioned ‘’fairly accurate portrait of women’s role in society.’’ While some women of the time succeeded in being entirely pure, it was not uncommon for damsels to try and seduce men as they traveled about the lands. The third morning, however, Gawain succumbs to his own fear of death and accepts the â€Å"lesser† of two gifts offered by Lady Bertalik on promises that the magical girdle will protect him from all harm. ‘’[The girdle] was wrought of green silk, and gold, only braided by the fingers, and that she offered to the knight, and besought him though it were of little worth that he would take it,’’ while in reality, Lady Bertalik is knowingly tricking the unsuspecting knight (Weston, Part III). In addition, Lady Bertalik’s gift is a strong symbol of womanhood and parallels both facets of pre-courtly and courtly literature. Like Lady Bertalik, the girdle is similar to the depiction of pre-courtly realism – in which women maintained their outward appearance, but also had inner, wild sexual desires that were often unleashed – as it is meant to be tied, but then removed to allow for free movement and expression. In slight contrast, the girdle may also illustrate the more courtly and idealistic viewpoint due to its restrictive qualities, which in theory, forces the girdle-clad to appear as a woman. The idea of the girdle enforcing a female faà §ade is lost, however, when Gawain, himself, dons the green article; thereby, excusing the idea that the girdle has any semblance of courtly qualities. For purposes of this argument – that Sir Gawain and the Green Knight entertains two separate depictions of society through literature, the realistic and the philosophical – it is Guinevere who plays Lady Bertilak’s opposite. Though she appears only briefly in this text, her role in courtly society is quite obvious. Seen at the opening feast given by her husband, King Arthur, Guinevere sits regally, but quietly beside her husband. While she expresses some momentary discontent – when Arthur first offers himself up to the Green Knight – it is almost entirely based upon her role as a  woman and the wife of the king. In this particular piece of Arthurian literature, Guinevere is defined by specific binaries; she is only what the king is not and she behaves the way that Lady Bertalik does not. Given this role, Guinevere exemplifies the pre-courtly disposition of behavior and remains the passive and silent, but â€Å"perfect† queen. As demonstrated through the actions and general social conduct of Lady Bertalik and Guinevere, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight displays a variety of women in several blatantly contrasting roles. While this, does substantiate the suggestion that the behavior of women has been projected differently throughout medieval literature. Like most medieval literature, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight participate in several important literary traditions that its original audience would have instantly recognized. Medieval poets were expected to re-use established source materials in their own works. Modern readers sometimes mistakenly take this as evidence of how lacking in creativity and originality the Middle Ages were. In reality, much of the interest of medieval literature comes from recognizing how one work of literature pulls against those that came before it, makes subtle changes from its sources, and invests old material with new meanings. One can read Sir Gawain and the Green Knight as simply a rollicking tale of adventure and magic or, alternatively, as a lesson in moral growth. However, understanding some of the literary and cultural background that Sir Gawain and the Green Knight draws upon can provide modern readers with a fuller view of the poem’s meaning. 2.2 The Prologue and Tale of the Wife of Bath are among the most popular parts of The Canterbury Tales, and also cause a lot of trouble for critics. There are many various opinions about the character of Alison, ranging from utter individuality of the character to her being only a refined archetype of the old go-between. Many consider the disparity of her Prologue and Tale so problematic that there is need to explain the duality of her personality, and again many others focus on the common features of the Prologue and Tale. Probably the only thing about Wife of Bath’s Tale on which the critics agree is that its narrative voice and choice of topic is distinctly feminine, the  world of her tale is inhabited by women with occasional obedient men. Alison is a feminist of her own making. Although many say that in the end she still submits to the rule of the patriarchal world, they do not take into account the time of her creation. When Alison struggles for respect in her own household, there is absolutely no awareness of feminine desire for equality, and it will still need several centuries before the Precieuses movement starts in France, influencing the whole Europe. Alison lives in a patriarchal world with strict views of women, and her domestic revolution seems outrageous in her times. Yet, in her Prologue, she argues that there is need for a distinctly feminine voice and tradition. Judging by Alison’s Prologue, it seems extremely difficult for a woman to accept her position in the male tradition. In her Prologue, she therefore uses the traditional patriarchal ideas and expression, and yet she bends them to suit her purpose. When she argues for marriage as an equally important alternative to virginity, she quotes St. Paul, the major male authority that prefers virginity. But it is obvious that the educated account of texts she shows the reader is only knowledge acquired from her husbands, as the read er is later to realize. She is incapable of reading the texts for herself; otherwise she would not use Jerome’s interpretation of the encounter of Jesus and the Samaritan woman beside a well. She would use the source text to impeach Jerome’s interpretation. But the Wife of Bath lacks the knowledge that it was not Jesus but the Samaritan woman herself who said she had no husband. Although the mind of the Wife is captured in medieval paradigms about women, she would gladly argue with Jerome just like she argued with her clerk husband, had she the knowledge of the original biblical text. The Wife also draws a decisive line between the biblical texts, which in no way express any obligation concerning the number of marriages, and the Church tradition created by men with no experience of marriage. What St. Paul says is not a rule, it is only advice: â€Å"Advice is no commandment in my view./ He left it in our judgment what to do† (CT, 278). After her biblical lecture where the Wife uses many examples from the Old Testament to show there are no strict rules established about marriage, she moves on to what she promises at the beginning of her Prologue, to experience: If there were no authority on earth Except experience; mine, for what it’s worth, And that’s enough for me, all goes to show That marriage is a misery and a woe; (CT,  276) Yet, as she has also shown, women’s reputation for zealous confessing paradoxically opened up opportunities of empowerment, as a number of female sham mystics, working with their attend- ant priests, created a lucrative theatre of spirituality in which the woman was the center of attention. The Wife of Bath’s Tale itself is another genre-experiment, which enacts the Wife’s speculation: By God! If women had written stories, As clerkes han withinne hire oratories, They wolde han written of men moore wikkednesse Than al the mark of Adam may redresse. (III (D), 693–6) The Tale is the retelling of a fairy mistress tale in which a knight finds that he can save his life only if he can find the answer to the question of what women want most. He goes on a quest in search of the answer and meets a loathsome old hag who tells him that women most want to have control over men. The knight escapes death at the hands of his enemies, but in return must marry the old hag. In bed on their marriage night, she persuades him to face her, whereupon he finds that she has transformed into a beautiful young girl. She asks him whether he would prefer to have her beautiful by day or by night, but tired by now of trick questions, the knight leaves the decision in her hands. Because he has capitulated to her, she promises to stay young and beautiful always, and they live happily ever after. What a synopsis effaces is the way in which this story can be adapted to prompt various responses. In the anonymous Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, the narrative framework is deployed to allow Gawain, as hero, to demonstrate extreme chivalric behavior and win audience approval. Chaucer’s adaptation is more radical. The hero is a rapist, forced into the bargain set by the ladies of the court to save his life. There is no indication that he is remorseful, nor that the quest is penitential. He comes upon the hag because he spies on some young girls dancing in a wood, and much less emphasis is put on the grotesque appearance of the hag than in other romance versions. The radical change, however, is that he walks into the bargain with the hag without knowing his part in advance. She accompanies him back to the court where the bargain is uttered in public. The quest is, therefore, manipulated so that instead of being morally enhanced, the hero is humiliated. He has no chance to dem onstrate Florent’s stoicism as all his opportunities for displaying bravery and chivalry are pre-empted by powerful and cynical  women. The values of chivalry are transposed ironically into a lecture given by the transformed hag to her husband on their wedding night in bed. The relationship between Prologue and Tale is not so much the simple matter of the Tale being adapted as the wish-fulfillment of the invented narrator; rather the two sit in parallel, drawing attention through their internal juxtapositions of authorities and lived experiences, to the gap between official society and its mores, as enshrined in textual traditions, and the operation of other behaviors and performances. Her struggle is not one for domination in the relationship, as both her Prologue and Tale show. It is a struggle for love. She wants to be treated like a beloved lady in the courtly tradition, and repay her loving husband with respect and obedience. The essentially better view is that â€Å"as a kind of special representative of Chaucer in the matter, she believes in harmony between partners, however it is arrived at† (Stone, 85). Of course, it is difficult to pass judgment on Chaucer’s personal views, as Chaucer was very careful about revealing his opinions, but the choice of the topic, and the portrayal of the shrewish wife as an understandable and rather likeable character might be a certain sign of Chaucer’s own attitude. For all the problems in her first four marriages, Alison does not lose hope yet. In her climactic marriage with Jankin, the only one that ends up as a success, she is looking for love. She already has enough money and a good social standing, she could be very satisfied as a widow, a woman no longer subjected to any man’s whim, and yet she decides to marry again. Alison needs her own money and the independence it gives. The General Prologue suggests that she also needs her own work and the status that goes with success. But she wants love as well and, in her relationship with Jankin, is romantic enough to believe that it will make money irrelevant .When Alison finds out she lost not only her money, which by the right of marriage now belongs to her husband, but also her integrity as her young husband tries to change her into an obedient wife with no life of her own, she starts to fight him. But before the physical struggle is described, Chaucer gives us a mental picture of Alison’s state, a picture of a tormented woman who lacks the words to defend herself, while her husband has all the available verbal weapons. CONCLUSION The poet positions Gawain at the center of the unresolved tensions between chivalry, courtly love, and Christianity. Gawain is famed as the most courteous of knights. In one sense, this creates the expectation that his behavior will be irreproachable; in another, it assumes that he will be the most delightful of lovers for the lady who can snare him. The Lady of Haut desert exploits this tension to the fullest as she attempts to seduce Gawain. But the poet has also made clear that the beloved lady whom Gawain serves first is the Virgin Mary. As a thoroughly Christianized knight, he is forced to walk a fine line in defending himself. He cannot offend a lady, but neither can he give his hostess what she wants, because in doing so, he would be committing a sexual sin, as well as breaking chivalric loyalty and honor by betraying his host. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight cannot, therefore, be called a straightforward romance. It makes use of most of the conventions and ideals of the Arthurian romance, yet also points out its contradictions and failings. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight is not an anti-romance, however, nor is it a parody, despite its lightness and good humor. When Chaucer laughs at Sir Thopas, he is mocking a tired genre, but when the Gawain-poet laughs, it is the generous laughter of friendship. The poet’s conservative and traditional approach to his timeworn material is what allows him to make it so engaging: He understands and thoroughly appreciates the conventions of his genre. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight manages to highlight the weakest points of the chivalric tradition while still appreciating everything that makes chivalry so attractive, especially its uncompromising devotion to the highest ideals, even if those ideals are not necessarily attainable (accomplished). Andreas got the Christian world to accept his concept of love by the device of the â€Å"double truth.† Although Christian teaching and his De Amore are basically irreconcilable, they may exist side by side each in its own sphere. His main purpose was to provide a pseudo-psychological and logical basis for the ideas and ideals of the troubadours. Reasoning and building on the nature of love and of humanity, he showed that love is the greatest good in this world, that it constitutes earthly happiness, and that it is the place of origin of all earthly good. Andreas proposed logically that if humans are viewed solely as rational and natural creatures, subject  only to the laws of nature and reason, then they must enroll in the army of the god of love and seek the pleasures of the flesh so that they may be ennobled and grow in virtue and in worth. Aware of the immoral and heretical implications of his work, Andreas wrote On the Rejection of Love where he condemned Courtly love a nd implicitly retracted all he had written. A strong possibility exists that Chaucer knew of the so-called double truth. He would have been aware of the dangers involved in writing romances of Courtly Love, the risk of an accusation of upholding immorality and heresy. He possibly set out to meet these dangers: 1. He is not interested in giving Courtly love a logical and philosophical grounding; he simply uses it as a vehicle for his love stories. 2. Andreas suggests he writes from experience. Chaucer states again and again that he is not writing on love from personal knowledge from experience or from his own feelings on the subject. Chaucer’s status is always as a non-participant in love–a rank outsider. His relationship to love and lovers is to be their clerk, their servant and instrument to gladden them and advance them in their individual cause. He doesn’t participate because he is unsuitable. Chaucer did strive for religious orthodoxy when, in the words of the Parson’s Tale, he protests that he â€Å"will stand for correction.† If his repudiation is not in fear, it might be a salve to a Christian conscience revolted at the utter incompatibility of Courtly Love with the tenets of Christian morality and faith. SUFFERING Love brings with it love melancholy or suffering. This was studied and in fact written on at length during the Renaissance, but it was known and made part of the fictional lover during Chaucer’s time. All in all, Chaucer’s attitude to women in The Canterbury Tales can hardly be judged as anti ­feminist. His portrayals of women are splendid and still attractive centuries after. He does not assert the male dominance in all his tales but he realistically employs different narrators to express different attitudes. Some of the tales question the medieval system of authorities, yet none of them is openly subversive. Chaucer’s female narrators cannot be judged by today’s standards of feminism and when they are looked at from the medieval point of view, the undertone of feminism in their behavior and tales emerges. They are concerned with bettering the conditions for women; they challenge the authorities in their tales. And although the women of the male tales are no revolutionaries, they are still humane enough for a modern  reader to enjoy. Chaucer does not portray women’s struggle for self-assertion, he unfolds the complex web of his society. Chaucer’s attitude to women as shown in his works is more complex than that of his contemporaries, and at the same time remains within the borders given by the society. Chaucer is a very careful poet and as such may be found inconvenient by some modern feminists. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Primary sources: Sri Gawain and the Green Knight Wife of Bath Secondary sources: Umbetro, Eco. Cum se face o teza de licenta, Polirom, Bucuresti, 2006 Dutu, Carmen. Eseuri si dizertatii. Metodologia crearii unei lucrari stintifice, Editura Universitara Bucuresti, 2012 G. C. Thornley and Gwyneth Roberts. An Outline of English Literature, Longman, Essex, 2008 Chretien de Troyes. Arthurian romances, Penguin Books Ltd, Englad 1991 Andreas Capellanus, The art of courtly love, Columbia University Press, New York 1960 Bruce J. Douglas. Evolution of Arthurian romance from the beginnings down to the year 1300, Gloucester, Mass Peter Smith 1958 Michel, Pastoureanu. La vie quotidienne en France et en Angleterre au temps des chevaliers de la Table Ronde, Hachette, Paris, 1976 ——————————————– [ 1 ]. Courtly love. Modern term popularized by C. S. Lewis to describe the various kinds of love between man and woman described in the works of *trou- badours and others between the 11c and the 13c. The range of feeling ran from the dutiful respect owed a lord’s wife, to the adulterously sexual. One relationship was excluded, that between husband and wife. The genre first appeared in Provence and then spread through Europe. Appearing at much the same time as Arthurian tales, the two created a potent and memorable mix of *chivalry and romance. The French phrase amour courtois is a 19c coin- age. – Cf. Aubade; Pastourelle [ 2 ]. b. 43 BCE, Roman who wrote a parody on the technical treatises on loving. [ 3 ]. The Ars amatoria (English: The Art of Love) is an instructional book series elegy in three books by Ancient Roman poet Ovid. It was written in 2 AD. It is about teaching basic Gentlemanly male and female relationship skills and techniques. [ 4 ]. Andreas Capellanus was the 12th-century author of a treatise commonly known as De amore (â€Å"About Love†), and often known in English, somewhat misleadingly, as The Art of Courtly Love, though its realistic, somewhat cynical tone suggests that it is in some measure an antidote to courtly love. [ 5 ]. Eleanor of Aquitaine was one of the wealthiest and most powerful women in Western Europe during the High Middle Ages . As well as being Duchess of Aquitaine in her own right, she was queen consort of France (1137–1152) and of England (1154–1189). She was the patroness of such literary figures as Wace, Benoà ®t de Sainte-Maure, and Bernart de Ventadorn. She belonged to the French House of Poitiers, the Ramnulfids. [ 6 ]. Marie of France, Countess of Champagne (1145 – March 11, 1198) was the elder daughter of Louis VII of France and his first wife, Eleanor of Aquitaine. [ 8 ]. French bishop of Paris during the 13th century. He was Chancellor of the Sorbonne from 1263 and bisho p of Paris from 1268.He is best remembered for promulgating a Condemnation of 219 philosophical and theological propositions (or articles) that addressed ideas and concepts that were being discussed and disputed in the faculty of Arts at the University of Paris. [ 9 ]. Chivalry is as much about the skills and manners of a warrior class as with a literature derived from the deeds of those warriors, but presented in an idealized fashion which returned to define the manners of the warriors. Chivalry was a collocation of qualities made into a coherent ideal: skill and courage, and a craving for glory or fame acquired through knightly skills and its necessary courage. [ 10 ]. Linda Ann Malcor Ph. D is an American scholar of Arthurian legend. She was selected as an Overseas Associate Member of the Late Antiquity Research Group.